Title: The Silent Struggle: Mental Health Problems in University Students Due to Maladaptive Learning Methods, Their Progression to Depression, and Evidence-Based Psychological Management and Counseling Approaches

 Title: The Silent Struggle: Mental Health Problems in University Students Due to Maladaptive Learning Methods, Their Progression to Depression, and Evidence-Based Psychological Management and Counseling Approaches

Author: Dr. Shekhar and Affiliation with team Psychology Doctor's Forum for All 🏥⚖️

Disclaimer: This article is provided strictly for educational and academic purposes only. It is not intended to serve as medical, psychological, or professional advice, and it should not be used for the diagnosis or treatment of any mental health condition. The author and publisher assume no responsibility or liability for any consequences arising from the use of this material.

Abstract

University students represent a population at elevated risk for mental health problems, with depression being among the most prevalent and debilitating conditions. While academic stress is a well-documented risk factor, the specific role of maladaptive learning methods in the etiology and maintenance of student depression remains underexplored. This comprehensive review examines the bidirectional relationship between ineffective study strategies and psychological distress, tracing the pathway from poor learning habits to academic failure, diminished self-efficacy, and ultimately clinical depression. Drawing upon Self-Regulated Learning theory, Cognitive Behavioral models, and empirical research from longitudinal and cross-sectional studies, this article elucidates the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral mechanisms that link maladaptive learning to depressive symptomatology. The review identifies specific problematic learning behaviors—including passive re-reading, cramming, procrastination, and perfectionistic over-preparation—as significant contributors to the development of learned helplessness and hopelessness. Furthermore, this article provides a detailed examination of evidence-based psychological management strategies and counseling interventions, including Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Behavioral Activation, Motivational Interviewing, and academic skills training programs integrated within university counseling services. The findings underscore the critical need for a holistic, integrated approach that addresses both the academic and psychological dimensions of student well-being. This article serves as a resource for university counselors, educators, and mental health professionals committed to preventing and treating depression in the student population through the remediation of maladaptive learning practices.

Keywords: university students, depression, maladaptive learning, self-regulated learning, academic stress, cognitive behavioral therapy, counseling, procrastination, learned helplessness, evidence-based intervention

1. Introduction

The transition to university represents a critical developmental period characterized by newfound independence, intellectual challenge, and social transformation. However, this period also coincides with a significant increase in the prevalence of mental health problems. Epidemiological studies consistently indicate that university students experience higher rates of depression, anxiety, and psychological distress compared to the general population (Auerbach et al., 2016; Eisenberg et al., 2007). A large-scale international survey by the World Health Organization found that approximately one in three first-year university students screens positive for a mental health disorder, with major depressive disorder being the most common (Auerbach et al., 2018).

The causes of student depression are multifactorial, encompassing biological vulnerability, social stressors, financial pressures, and academic demands. Among these, academic stress is consistently identified as a primary source of psychological distress for students (Beiter et al., 2015). However, the focus on the volume of academic work often overshadows a more nuanced and critical factor: the methods by which students approach learning. Maladaptive learning methods—ineffective, inefficient, and counterproductive study strategies—may be a hidden and modifiable contributor to the development of depression.

This article argues that the relationship between learning methods and depression is not merely correlational but deeply mechanistic. Ineffective study strategies, often carried over from secondary education, lead to a cascade of negative consequences: poor academic performance, increased time expenditure with diminishing returns, chronic sleep deprivation, and a pervasive sense of inadequacy. This experience of repeated failure, despite significant effort, can engender a state of "learned helplessness" (Seligman, 1972), a core psychological precursor to depression. The student who studies for hours using passive techniques, only to fail an exam, does not simply lack knowledge; they acquire a devastating belief about their own incompetence and lack of control over their academic fate.

This comprehensive review has three primary objectives:

1. To identify and describe maladaptive learning methods commonly employed by university students and explain why they are ineffective from a cognitive psychological perspective.

2. To trace the etiological pathway from maladaptive learning to depressive symptomatology, examining the mediating roles of academic failure, self-efficacy, procrastination, perfectionism, and learned helplessness.

3. To provide an evidence-based overview of psychological management and counseling interventions that effectively address both the academic skill deficits and the associated depressive symptoms.

By integrating the literature on educational psychology and clinical mental health, this article aims to provide a unified framework for understanding and treating a significant subset of student depression—one that is rooted in the modifiable behaviors of learning itself.

2. The Nature of Maladaptive Learning Methods

Maladaptive learning methods are study strategies that are inefficient, ineffective, or actively detrimental to long-term knowledge acquisition and academic performance. They are often characterized by high time investment and low cognitive engagement. A substantial body of research in cognitive psychology has identified several common techniques that are widely used by students but lack empirical support (Dunlosky et al., 2013).

2.1 Passive Re-reading and Highlighting

The most prevalent study strategies among university students are passive re-reading of textbooks and lecture notes, and the highlighting or underlining of key passages (Karpicke et al., 2009). These techniques create an "illusion of competence"—the material feels familiar, and the student believes they have learned it, but this familiarity does not translate into the ability to retrieve or apply the information independently (Bjork, Dunlosky, & Kornell, 2013).

From a cognitive perspective, re-reading is a shallow processing task that does not require the active reconstruction of knowledge. The fluency that develops from repeated exposure is mistaken for mastery. Students who rely on these methods are often shocked when they perform poorly on exams, leading to confusion and a sense of betrayal by their own efforts.

2.2 Massed Practice (Cramming)

Massed practice, or cramming, involves intensive study in a single, prolonged session, often immediately preceding an examination. While cramming can be effective for short-term recall, the information is rapidly forgotten (Cepeda et al., 2006). This strategy is fundamentally incompatible with the goal of durable learning.

Cramming is often a response to procrastination, and it creates a vicious cycle. The student avoids studying due to anxiety or lack of motivation, then experiences a surge of panic as the deadline approaches, leading to a frantic, sleep-deprived study session. The academic performance is often mediocre, and the student learns that procrastination, while painful, is survivable. This reinforces the maladaptive behavior, perpetuating the cycle for the next assessment.

2.3 Multitasking and Distracted Study

The modern university student studies in an environment saturated with digital distractions. Social media notifications, text messages, and streaming services constantly compete for attention. Research consistently demonstrates that multitasking is a myth; the human brain cannot process multiple streams of information simultaneously. Instead, it engages in rapid task-switching, which incurs a "switching cost" in terms of time and accuracy (Ophir, Nass, & Wagner, 2009).

Students who study while checking their phones are not simply learning less efficiently; they are fragmenting their attention, preventing the deep, focused processing necessary for comprehension and consolidation. The resultant learning is shallow and disjointed, leading to poor academic outcomes despite long hours spent "studying."

2.4 Perfectionistic Over-Preparation

At the other end of the spectrum lies perfectionistic over-preparation. While not a "learning method" per se, it is a maladaptive approach to academic work rooted in a fear of failure. The perfectionistic student may spend excessive hours on a single assignment, repeatedly revising and editing beyond the point of diminishing returns. They may create elaborate, color-coded study guides that are aesthetically pleasing but do not enhance learning.

This behavior is driven by an underlying belief that one's self-worth is contingent on flawless performance (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). The cost is enormous: the student sacrifices sleep, social connection, and physical health in a relentless pursuit of an unattainable standard. Ironically, this approach often leads to worse performance due to burnout and anxiety, further fueling the cycle of self-criticism and fear.

3. The Etiological Pathway: From Maladaptive Learning to Depression

The transition from using ineffective study strategies to experiencing clinical depression is not instantaneous; it is a progressive, multi-stage process involving cognitive, emotional, and behavioral changes.

3.1 The Role of Academic Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura (1997), is an individual's belief in their capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments. It is a powerful predictor of motivation, effort, and persistence. Students with high academic self-efficacy approach challenges with confidence and view setbacks as opportunities to adjust their strategies. Students with low self-efficacy, in contrast, doubt their abilities and are more likely to give up in the face of difficulty.

Maladaptive learning methods directly erode academic self-efficacy. A student who spends hours re-reading and highlighting, only to fail an exam, draws a logical conclusion: "I studied hard, and I still failed. Therefore, I am not smart enough, and no amount of effort will help." This attribution is catastrophic. The student has incorrectly attributed the failure to a fixed, internal trait (lack of intelligence) rather than to the modifiable factor of using an ineffective strategy (Weiner, 1985). This maladaptive attribution is the first step on the path to learned helplessness.

3.2 Learned Helplessness and the Development of Hopelessness

Learned helplessness, originally described by Seligman (1972), occurs when an individual is repeatedly exposed to uncontrollable aversive events and learns that their actions have no effect on outcomes. This leads to a motivational deficit (passivity), a cognitive deficit (difficulty learning that responses can be effective), and an emotional deficit (depression).

The university student who consistently underperforms despite their best efforts is at high risk for developing learned helplessness. They may begin to believe that no matter what they do, they will fail. This belief generalizes beyond academics to other domains of life, fostering a pervasive sense of hopelessness about the future. Hopelessness is a core feature of depression and a significant risk factor for suicidal ideation (Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979).

3.3 The Mediating Role of Procrastination

Procrastination is not simply laziness; it is an emotion regulation strategy—a way of avoiding the negative feelings (anxiety, boredom, fear of failure) associated with a task (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Students who lack confidence in their learning abilities are more likely to procrastinate, as the act of studying itself becomes a source of anxiety.

The temporal cycle of procrastination—initial avoidance, followed by panic, followed by a rushed, low-quality performance—creates a self-fulfilling prophecy. The student's poor performance confirms their fear that they are incapable, which increases their anxiety about future tasks, leading to more procrastination. Chronic procrastination is strongly associated with elevated levels of stress, anxiety, and depression (Steel, 2007). It also leads to sleep deprivation, which further impairs cognitive function and emotional regulation, creating a downward spiral.

3.4 Perfectionism as a Vulnerability Factor

Perfectionism, particularly the dimension of "self-critical perfectionism," is a well-established risk factor for depression among university students (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Self-critical perfectionists set unrealistically high standards and engage in harsh self-scrutiny when those standards are not met.

The academic environment is a natural breeding ground for perfectionism. Grades are constant, quantifiable evaluations of one's performance. For the perfectionistic student, a grade of "B" is not a "good" grade; it is a failure that confirms their inadequacy. When this student also employs maladaptive learning methods, the gap between their effort and their results is inexplicable to them. They cannot understand why their hours of meticulous note-taking are not yielding straight A's. This cognitive dissonance intensifies their self-criticism, leading to feelings of shame, worthlessness, and depression.

3.5 The Pathway to Social Withdrawal and Isolation

As academic performance declines and self-efficacy erodes, students often begin to withdraw from social activities. They may feel ashamed of their struggles and isolate themselves to hide their perceived inadequacy. They may decline invitations to socialize, telling themselves they "need to study," only to spend that time in unproductive, anxious rumination.

Social isolation is both a symptom and a cause of depression. The loss of social support removes a critical buffer against stress. Furthermore, the lack of positive social interactions deprives the student of opportunities for enjoyment and mastery in other domains, narrowing their identity to the single, failing domain of academics.

4. Psychological Management and Counseling Interventions

The effective treatment of depression in university students who struggle with maladaptive learning requires a dual-pronged approach: addressing the depressive symptoms and remediating the underlying academic skill deficits. Interventions that focus on one without the other are likely to be incomplete.

4.1 Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

CBT is the most extensively researched and empirically supported treatment for depression (Cuijpers et al., 2013). It is based on the premise that thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are interconnected, and that changing maladaptive thoughts and behaviors can alleviate depressive symptoms.

In the context of academic-related depression, CBT targets several key cognitive distortions:

· All-or-Nothing Thinking: "If I don't get an A, I am a total failure." The therapist helps the student to recognize this as an overgeneralization and to develop more balanced, realistic thoughts.

· Catastrophizing: "If I fail this exam, my life is over." The therapist guides the student to evaluate the actual likelihood and consequences of the feared outcome.

· Personalization: "My professor gave me a bad grade because they don't like me." The therapist helps the student to consider alternative explanations for events.

Beyond cognitive restructuring, CBT for academic depression should incorporate behavioral experiments. A student who believes "I am incapable of learning statistics" might be guided to test this belief by trying a new, evidence-based study strategy (like retrieval practice) for a week and monitoring their comprehension. A successful experiment provides powerful disconfirming evidence that challenges the core negative belief, thereby increasing self-efficacy.

4.2 Behavioral Activation (BA)

Behavioral Activation is a core component of CBT that has also been established as an effective standalone treatment for depression (Dimidjian et al., 2006). BA is based on the principle that depression leads to avoidance and withdrawal, which in turn reduces opportunities for positive reinforcement, creating a vicious cycle that maintains the depression.

The goal of BA is to help the student systematically re-engage with activities that are likely to provide a sense of pleasure or mastery, even if they do not feel like doing so initially.

For the struggling student, BA might involve:

· Scheduling: Working with the counselor to create a weekly schedule that includes not only study time but also social activities, physical exercise, and hobbies.

· Graded Task Assignment: Breaking down overwhelming academic tasks (e.g., "write my term paper") into small, manageable steps (e.g., "spend 30 minutes finding five sources"). This reduces the sense of overwhelm and makes the task seem less aversive.

· Monitoring Mood: Having the student track their mood before and after engaging in scheduled activities. This provides concrete evidence that engaging in activities, even when unmotivated, often leads to a subsequent improvement in mood, reinforcing the behavior.

By re-establishing a routine and re-engaging with rewarding activities, BA combats the inertia and withdrawal that characterize depression, providing a foundation of positive experience upon which the student can rebuild their academic confidence.

4.3 Motivational Interviewing (MI)

Motivational Interviewing is a collaborative, goal-oriented counseling style designed to strengthen an individual's own motivation and commitment to change (Miller & Rollnick, 2012). It is particularly useful for students who are ambivalent about changing their study habits or who have been "sent" to counseling by concerned parents or academic advisors.

MI is based on the principles of expressing empathy, developing discrepancy, rolling with resistance, and supporting self-efficacy. The counselor does not lecture the student about what they should do. Instead, they use reflective listening and open-ended questions to help the student explore the discrepancy between their current behavior (e.g., cramming) and their deeply held values and goals (e.g., "I want to become a doctor so I can help people").

By guiding the student to articulate their own reasons for change, MI increases intrinsic motivation, which is far more durable than motivation imposed from the outside. Once the student has voiced a desire to change their learning strategies, the counselor can then offer information and support in a collaborative manner.

4.4 Academic Skills Training Integrated with Counseling

Perhaps the most crucial element of effective intervention is the direct teaching of evidence-based learning strategies. Simply telling a depressed student to "study more effectively" is insufficient. They need explicit, structured instruction and guided practice in specific techniques.

University counseling centers are uniquely positioned to offer this integrated support. Programs might include:

· Workshops: Standalone workshops on topics such as "The Science of Learning," "How to Overcome Procrastination," or "Effective Exam Preparation." These workshops should be grounded in cognitive psychology and teach concrete skills like spaced repetition, retrieval practice, and interleaving.

· Group Counseling: Therapy groups specifically designed for students struggling with academic anxiety and procrastination. These groups provide a supportive environment where students can share their struggles, learn from each other, and practice new skills.

· Individual Counseling:Integrating academic skills coaching into individual therapy sessions. A counselor might spend part of a session teaching a student how to use a flashcard app or how to create a realistic study schedule using implementation intentions.

The key is to treat the remediation of maladaptive learning methods not as an adjunct to therapy but as a central therapeutic intervention. When a student experiences the success that comes from using an effective strategy, it directly challenges their core belief of incompetence, providing a powerful boost to self-efficacy and a tangible path out of the depression.

4.5 Mindfulness-Based Interventions

University students face high levels of stress and rumination, both of which are significant contributors to depression. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) have been shown to be effective in reducing stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms in student populations (Regehr, Glancy, & Pitts, 2013).

Mindfulness teaches students to observe their thoughts and feelings non-judgmentally, breaking the cycle of rumination that fuels depression. For the student who is paralyzed by the thought "I'm going to fail, I'm a failure," mindfulness provides a tool to observe this thought as a mental event, not as a fact. This creates a space between stimulus and response, allowing the student to choose a more skillful action (e.g., "I notice I'm having the thought that I'm a failure. I'm going to take three deep breaths and then focus on the next step in my study plan").

Brief mindfulness exercises, such as a 5-minute guided breathing meditation at the beginning of a counseling session or before starting a study block, can be practical, accessible "hacks" that help students regulate their emotions and focus their attention.

5. A Case Illustration

Consider the case of "Ananya, ( change the name into imaginary name in my mind for privacy reasons)

" a 19-year-old second-year pre-medical student who presented to university counseling with symptoms of major depressive disorder: persistent sadness, loss of interest in activities, insomnia, fatigue, and feelings of worthlessness.

Initial Assessment: Ananya  reported that she had always been a "straight-A" student in high school. However, since starting university, her grades had dropped to B's and C's. She described studying "all the time"—spending hours in the library every night. Her primary study strategy was re-reading her textbook chapters multiple times and copying her lecture notes into neatly organized, color-coded binders. She would begin studying for exams a week in advance by re-reading all her notes from the beginning.

When she received a "C" on her organic chemistry midterm, despite having studied "harder than ever," she was devastated. She concluded that she "wasn't smart enough for university" and that her dream of becoming a doctor was over. She began to withdraw from her friends, stopped attending her extracurricular activities, and spent most of her free time alone in her room, ruminating on her failures.

Case Conceptualization: Ananya's depression was driven by a combination of maladaptive learning strategies (passive re-reading), maladaptive attributions ("I'm not smart enough"), and behavioral withdrawal. Her high-effort, low-yield study methods created a situation where her experience ("I studied so hard") did not match her outcome ("I got a C"). This led to a crisis of self-efficacy and the development of learned helplessness.

Treatment Plan: Ananya's counselor used an integrated approach.

1. Psychoeducation: The counselor explained the science of learning to Ananya. She learned that re-reading is an ineffective strategy and that her "failure" was not a reflection of her intelligence but of her methods. This was a transformative revelation for Ananya.

2. Cognitive Restructuring (CBT): The counselor helped Ananya identify and challenge her all-or-nothing thinking ("I got a C, so I'm a failure"). She learned to reframe her thoughts more realistically ("I did not do as well as I wanted on this exam. I have identified some areas where I can improve my study strategies").

3. Skills Training: The counselor taught Ananya how to use evidence-based study techniques, including retrieval practice (using flashcards and practice tests) and spaced repetition (scheduling her review sessions over increasing intervals). Together, they created a new study plan for her next exam.

4. Behavioral Activation (BA): The counselor worked with Ananya to schedule activities that she had previously enjoyed, such as having coffee with a friend and attending a yoga class. She was encouraged to engage in these activities even if she did not feel like it.

Outcome: Over the course of eight sessions, Ananya's depressive symptoms decreased significantly. She implemented her new study strategies and, on her next organic chemistry exam, received a "B+." More importantly, she reported feeling a renewed sense of hope and control. She had learned that her academic performance was not a fixed trait but a function of her strategies, and she now possessed the tools to succeed.

6. Recommendations for University Counseling Centers

Based on the evidence reviewed, the following recommendations are offered for university counseling centers seeking to address the problem of learning-related depression:

1. Universal Screening: Incorporate questions about study habits and academic self-efficacy into the standard intake assessment for all students presenting with depression or anxiety.

2. Integrated Treatment Models: Train all counselors in the principles of evidence-based learning strategies. Academic skills remediation should be viewed as a core therapeutic competency, not an ancillary service.

3. Collaboration with Academic Units: Foster partnerships between the counseling center and academic departments. Academic advisors and faculty should be trained to recognize the signs of learning-related distress and to refer students appropriately.

4. Proactive Prevention Programs: Offer workshops and seminars on the "science of learning" to all incoming first-year students. Teaching effective study strategies early can prevent the development of academic problems and the associated psychological distress.

5. Group Interventions: Develop structured group therapy programs for students struggling with procrastination and perfectionism. Groups are a cost-effective way to provide support and skills training to a larger number of students.

6. Evaluate and Research: Counseling centers should collect data on the effectiveness of their interventions for learning-related depression and contribute to the empirical literature on best practices.

7. Conclusion

The mental health crisis on university campuses is a complex and urgent problem. While many factors contribute to student depression, the role of maladaptive learning methods has been largely overlooked. This review has argued that ineffective study strategies are not merely a benign inefficiency but a significant, modifiable risk factor for the development of depression. The pathway is clear: poor methods lead to poor performance, which erodes self-efficacy, fosters learned helplessness, and triggers a cascade of negative cognitive, emotional, and behavioral consequences.

The good news is that this pathway can be interrupted. By integrating evidence-based learning strategies into the treatment of student depression, university counselors can address the root cause of the distress, not just the symptoms. When a student learns how to learn effectively, they experience a profound shift in their sense of agency and control. The realization that "I am not stupid; I was just using the wrong tools" is often the first, and most critical, step on the road to recovery. The challenge before us is to ensure that every student who struggles has access to the knowledge and support they need to unlock their potential and thrive, both academically and psychologically.

8. References

· Auerbach, R. P., Alonso, J., Axinn, W. G., Cuijpers, P., Ebert, D. D., Green, J. G., ... & Bruffaerts, R. (2016). Mental disorders among college students in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. Psychological Medicine, 46(14), 2955-2970.

· Auerbach, R. P., Mortier, P., Bruffaerts, R., Alonso, J., Benjet, C., Cuijpers, P., ... & Kessler, R. C. (2018). WHO World Mental Health Surveys International College Student Project: Prevalence and distribution of mental disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 127(7), 623-638.

· Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

· Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. Guilford Press.

· Beiter, R., Nash, R., McCrady, M., Rhoades, D., Linscomb, M., Clarahan, M., & Sammut, S. (2015). The prevalence and correlates of depression, anxiety, and stress in a sample of college students. Journal of Affective Disorders, 173, 90-96.

· Bjork, R. A., Dunlosky, J., & Kornell, N. (2013). Self-regulated learning: Beliefs, techniques, and illusions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 417-444.

· Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 354-380.

· Cuijpers, P., Berking, M., Andersson, G., Quigley, L., Kleiboer, A., & Dobson, K. S. (2013). A meta-analysis of cognitive-behavioural therapy for adult depression, alone and in comparison with other treatments. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 58(7), 376-385.

· Dimidjian, S., Hollon, S. D., Dobson, K. S., Schmaling, K. B., Kohlenberg, R. J., Addis, M. E., ... & Jacobson, N. S. (2006). Randomized trial of behavioral activation, cognitive therapy, and antidepressant medication in the acute treatment of adults with major depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(4), 658-670.

· Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.

· Eisenberg, D., Gollust, S. E., Golberstein, E., & Hefner, J. L. (2007). Prevalence and correlates of depression, anxiety, and suicidality among university students. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(4), 534-542.

· Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(3), 456-470.

· Karpicke, J. D., Butler, A. C., & Roediger, H. L. (2009). Metacognitive strategies in student learning: Do students practise retrieval when they study on their own? Memory, 17(4), 471-479.

· Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2012). Motivational interviewing: Helping people change (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.

· Ophir, E., Nass, C., & Wagner, A. D. (2009). Cognitive control in media multitaskers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(37), 15583-15587.

· Regehr, C., Glancy, D., & Pitts, A. (2013). Interventions to reduce stress in university students: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 148(1), 1-11.

· Seligman, M. E. P. (1972). Learned helplessness. Annual Review of Medicine, 23(1), 407-412.

· Sirois, F. M., & Pychyl, T. A. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115-127.

· Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65-94.

· Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92(4), 548-573.